Critical+Essays

New Faces on Televisions: A 12-Season Replication
Greenberg and Worrell examined //TV Guide’s// fall preview issues from 1993 - 2004, accumulating 419 new programs with 1,336 character images. Greenberg and Worrell compared the demographics, in terms of race, gender, and age, to those of other studies: the Fall Colors study for 2003-2004; Glascock in 2003; Mastro and Stern in 2003; Signorielli and Bacue in 1999; and others. Greenberg and Worrell examined the six cable networks: ABC; CBS; NBC; FOX; WB; and the UPN. The purpose of their research covered four basic questions. Have population increases in ethnic minorities been reflected in their appearances in lead roles in new television programs? Have women gained parity with men in lead roles in new TV series? Have under-represented age groups obtained more lead roles in new TV series? How do the different networks compare with each other in these portrayals? These four questions were based on cultivation analysis, which investigates the consequences of a constant viewing of a skewed reality given by television programs, especially in regards to the emphasis placed on the leading roles. Greenberg and Worrell discuss two events that led to a predictable increase in the percentage of face time for African Americans: the birth of two new networks and the threatened lawsuits and boycotts from the NAACP. One of the two new networks, the UPN, was conceived to reach the minority population as its targeted audience. The NAACP conducted their own content analysis in 1999 and found only 8% of new characters were African American. Greenberg and Worrell suggest for future research the use of social cognitive theory. This theory looks at the perceived attractiveness and activeness of the lead characters as the basis for behavior emulation. They also suggest for future researchers to study the ratings and audience composition later in the season. They argue that the impact of having African American characters at a higher percentage rate for a lower rated network should be viewed differently than from a lower percentage rate on a higher rated network. Greenberg and Worrell conclude that the the percentage of African American characters in new episodes has increased to 18%, but that the percentage does still fluctuate depending on the year. 

Differences from Somewhere: The Normativity of Whiteness in Bioethics in the United States.
Catherine Myser explores the undefined realm of whiteness as it pertains to bioethics. Myser argues that researchers have yet to notice or question the dominance of whiteness in bioethics which can lead to the assertion of white privilege within the theoretical structures that help deal with ethical issues. Myser points out that she is not necessarily concerned with the fact that the majority of bioethics researchers are white, but rather that those researchers can not see their own whiteness. She defines whiteness as it pertains to a social place marker. Myser divides her argument into two goal: the defining of whiteness within the context of legal and social history and the discussing of attempts that other social scientists have made in regards to the discussion of diversity within bioethics. Myser defines white as a social place marker that allows for social and legal privileges. Myser notes that those who help shape the foundations of bioethics are members of educated upper-class. The values and cognitive characteristics are linked to the white-anglo-saxon-protestant (WASP) values and cognitive characteristics. She lists some of these characteristics as “individualism,” “self,” “relationships,” and “hyperindividualism.” Myser notes that these values being linked to bioethics has a large impact on public opinion and policy and therefore, these values are utilized in creating bioethical norms and guidelines. Myser believes that this power is being ignored by those who utilize it because they do not participated in self-reflection. Myser claims not to be making an argument against integrating diversity into bioethics but trying to push for a great self-realization of already held values. Myser says that without self-reflection researchers fail to push aside their own biasses as well as assert those biasses as truth. The danger of allowing the unrecognized whiteness stand is that it allows researchers to describe all values that do not conform as “other.” Myser asserts that while she is not focused on the race of the bioethics researchers she does believe that those who participate in bioethics research should look at who is conducting the research and who is the audience of that research. The acceptance of values by those who already hold them further ingrains an attitude of white privilege. Myser suggests the use of community-based participatory research (CBPR). CBPR opens the door between those who hold with the values of the dominant value system and those who are currently classified as “other.”

Hey Girl, Am I More than My Hair?: African American Women and Their Struggles with Beauty, Body Image, and Hair.
=== Tracey Owens Patton’s article discusses the effects of the white standard of beauty on African American women. Owens Patton basis her analysis on two theories: Afrocentric theory and standpoint theory. Owens Patton places the standards of African American women in juxtaposition of Euro American women. She concludes her argument by exploring a possible system of redefining beauty standards through the Black beauty liberation. === Owens Patton notes that a single definition of beauty across cultures or time is impossible. She provides the first instance of women subjecting themselves to a physical change for aesthetic reason as the Chinese practice of foot binding. The practice of changing physical appearance continues into today’s societies throughout the world. Literature concerning the beauty of African American women point out that the mediated form of beauty either erases their own beauty or is filled with racist stereotypes such as the oversexed jezebel, the tragic mulatto, and the mammy figure. Owens Patton looks at the beginnings of the erasure of African beauty during the days of American slavery trade system. She notes that those who had physical features more closely related to white/European features were considered for house work, as well as had a better chance of protection, had more educational opportunities, and better clothes and food. Those slaves who had darker skin and kinky hair were chosen for field work. The field working slaves often wore head rags or shaved their heads due to lack of grooming items. The Wolof, Mende, Mandingo, and Yoruba of the early fifteenth century used hairstyles to signal age, marital status or rank within their community. When subjected to slavery their hair, a status symbol and a symbol of identity, was shaven by slave traders. Today the hairstyle chosen can be viewed as challenge to the idea of assimilating into the white idea of culture. Opponents to the idea of hair straightening were W. E. B. DuBois, Booker T. Washington, and Marcus Garvey. Black women of the time however looked to Madame C. J. Walker for help in achieving modern hairstyles. Hair straightening was seen as a way to challenge the notion that black beauty was undesirable. Madam C. J. Walker was seen as a helper in he rise of self-esttem among African Americans. The idea of hair straightening was again opposed with the “Black is Beautiful” campaign. Malcolm X felt that straightening the hair was hiding the beauty of the black person. Hairstyles chosen by women to define black beauty includes afros, braids, dreadlocks, and knots, all styles can be seen as either a sign of beauty or an act of rebellion against the mainstream white vision of beauty. Owens Patton admits that beauty can not be defined but gives the general description of acceptance of beauty in the U. S. to be a young, slim, tall, upper class white woman. She traces the concept of fashion and beauty from sixteenth-century European women to modern women living in the U.S. She compares the physical changes that modern undergo, such as piercing, diet aids, liposuction, etc, to the physical changes made by the Chinese women long ago. Owens Patton defines standpoint theory as the advocating for all people to be included rather than sustaining the current hegemonic order. The theory focuses on the individual circumstances to define perspectives, beliefs, or values rather than a general definition. She pairs this theory with Afrocentric theory as a tool to examine body image, hair, and race. She states that in placing Afrocentric theory side by side with other cultural theories, Afrocentric theory challenges the white Euro American idea of beauty. Owens Patton discusses that African American women are generally more acceptive of their body image and are less likely to develop anorexia or bulemia. She lists four possible reason: belief that African American men desire larger women; use androgynous traits, which is often seen in persons with a higher self-esteem; ethnic identification protects them from connecting to the mediated concept of beauty; socioeconomic class may play a role for some women who do not have a problem with a heavier weight. Despite African American women being generally happier with their body image, the media exposes a Eurocentric idea of beauty constantly. Those women that meet this standard are often judged as having desirable attributes such as a high intellect, happiness, etc. African American women spend three times as much money on hair care products as their white counter parts. Owens Patton describes a court case that upheld work place discrimination based on hair style choices made by African American women. She concedes that many corporate polices were changed, but says that psychotherapists were already seeing an increase in reports of low self-esteem in black women stemming from their skin color, hair, or facial features. Owens Patton points out that even hairstyle magazines designed for African Americans have women with light skin tones, blue or green eyes, and have “good” hair. Women, especially African American women who do not meet the criteria, are told that outward beauty is what defines a woman. Owens Patton concludes with her suggestion of a Black Beauty Liberation campaign that would allow woman not to identify with the mainstream idea of beauty but embrace the individual body and to allow black women to define their own beauty standards. Owens Patton admits that this is a hard theory to embrace because black women have to go against an entire culture rather than just part of it.


 Myser, Catherine. "Differences from Somewhere: The Normativity of Bioethics in the United States." //American Journal of Bioethics// 3.2 (Spring 2003): 1-11. //Academic Search Premier//. Web. 6 Dec. 2009. .

Owens Patton, Tracey. "Hey Girl, Am I More than My Hair?: African American Women and Their Struggles with Beauty, Body Image, and Hair." //NWSJournal// 18.2 (Summer 2006): 24-51. //Academic Search Premier//. Web. 6 Dec. 2009. .